Volume 1, No. 2 Special Section: Numerical Modeling of Concrete Durability edited by Prof. T. Ishida Multi-scale Modeling of Concrete Performance-Integrated Material and Structural Mechanics (Invited paper) Koichi Maekawa, Tetsuya Ishida and Toshiharu Kishi Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 91-126, 2003 Multi-scale modeling of structural concrete performance is presented as a systematic knowledge base of coupled cementitious composites and structural mechanics. An object-oriented computational scheme is proposed for life-span simulation of reinforced concrete. Conservation of moisture, carbon dioxide, oxygen, chloride, calcium and momentum is solved with hydration, carbonation, corrosion, ion dissolution, damage evolution and their thermodynamic/mechanical equilibrium. The holistic system is verified by the reality.[PDF: 1.8MB] Simultaneous Transport of Chloride and Calcium Ions in Hydrated Cement Systems Takafumi Sugiyama, Worapatt Ritthichauy and Yukikazu Tsuji Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 127-138, 2003 This paper presents a new method for numerically calculating the concentration profiles of both calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) crystals and total chloride ions (Cl-) in concrete in contact with 3% (0.5 mol/l) sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. Since diffusion of ions present in the pore solution is a primarily controlling factor the application of mutual diffusion coefficients of corresponding ions that are influenced by the concentration of other coexisting ions is proposed. The method of calculation is based on the generalized form of Fick’s first law suggested by Onsager, which is composed of the Onsager phenomenological coefficient and the thermodynamic force between ions occurred by the gradient of electrochemical potential in a multicomponent concentrated solution for the pore solution. In addition the chemical equilibrium for Ca(OH)2 dissolution and C-S-H decalcification are also modeled and coupled with diffusion. Increased porosity due to dissolved Ca2+ and a chloride binding isotherm are taken into consideration. The concentration profiles of Ca(OH)2 and the presence of the Friedel's salt in a mortar specimen are experimentally identified by the X-ray diffraction method (XRD) and the thermal analysis (TG/DTA) as well as the total chloride profile using an acid extraction method after the three years of exposure to 0.5 mol/l NaCl solution. This experimental result verifies the calculation result. Simulation Model for Deterioration of Concrete Structures due to Chloride Attack Koji Takewaka, Toshinobu Yamaguchi and Satoshi Maeda Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 139-146, 2003 Reinforced concrete structures in marine environment have the deterioration problem caused by the corrosion of reinforcement. Many researches have been investigated this problem, however, there are not so much evaluation techniques until now. In this study, a simulation model for deterioration of concrete structures due to chloride attack was constructed. This model mainly consists of both the penetration models of chloride and oxygen, and the corrosion model of reinforcement, considering the scatter of the concrete quality and existence of the defects such as cracks. By using the proposed model, it was possible to estimate the progress of corrosion of reinforcement and the period of corrosion crack generation on concrete. Numerical Modeling of Steel Corrosion in Concrete Structures due to Chloride Ion, Oxygen and Water movement Tsuyoshi Maruya, Kailin Hsu, Hitoshi Takeda and Somnuk Tangtermsirikul Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 147-160, 2003 A comprehensive numerical system is proposed for the attempt to solve the problem on the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures subjecting to chloride-induced corrosion. This numerical system was created by combining the physicochemical models related to the migration of corrosion-related substances in concrete, such as chloride ions, oxygen and vapor, and the electrochemical models dealing with the formation of half-cell potential from the view points of macrocell corrosion and corrosion current of RC members under chloride-induced corrosion. Chloride ions concentration, oxygen concentration, water content, current density and the loss of cross sectional area at any position of rebar can be calculated by this system. Prediction of Changes in Physical Properties due to Leaching of Hydration Products from Concrete Kosuke Yokozeki, Kenzo Watanabe, Noboru Sakata and Nobuaki Otsuki Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 161-171, 2003 It is well known that degradation of properties such as increase in porosity of the surface layer and reduction in strength occur because of material transfer due to dissolution and diffusion of hydration products when concrete comes in contact with water. However, methods for quantitatively evaluating the changes in properties have not yet been established. The authors studied the applicability of immersion tests of cement paste using cation-exchange resin, and studied actual concrete structures of age ranging from 34 to 104 years. The authors also constructed a model for studying changes in physical properties such as porosity, strength and coefficient of permeability with leaching, based on the results of the studies. Linear Logarithmic Model for Concrete Creep, I. Formulation and Evaluation Marten Larson and Jan-Erik Jonasson Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 172-187, 2003 Control of thermal cracking in young concrete is of great importance to ensure a desired service lifetime and function of a structure. Making reliable predictions about thermal stresses, and thereby cracking risks, the creep behaviour forms an important part of the material modelling. Up until now few studies have been made to investigate how different creep modelling influence calculated thermal stresses. Existing creep models for young concrete are often pure mathematical expressions with no direct relation to the material behaviour and thereby complicated to understand and use in a more practical context. In this paper a new basic creep model primarily aimed for early age purposes is outlined. The formulation with its model parameters, which have an easy to understand meaning in the material behaviour, is based on piece-wise linear curves in logarithm of time and therefore denoted the Linear Logarithmic Model LLM. Comparisons with experimental creep data and other more commonly used creep formulations for young concrete is made to achieve an opinion about the accuracy of the new model. The new model is a flexible and robust formulation that can model the behaviour of both young and mature concrete. The robustness enables it to make reliable creep modelling with very few test data. Another advantage with the LLM formulation is that the appearance of negative relaxation in linear viscoelastic modelling is very small and negligible with respect to thermal stresses. This means that the original formulation may be used directly in a thermal stress analysis without any adjustment for negative relaxation. The LLM formulation shows very good agreement directly with experimental creep data and indirectly with measured thermal stresses, whereby the formulation has been used to model the viscoelastic behaviour of the concrete. The formulation also has the best correlation with experimental data compared to other commonly used creep models that have been analysed in this paper. Linear Logarithmic Model for Concrete Creep, II. Prediction Formulas for Description of Creep Behaviour Marten Larson and Jan-Erik Jonasson Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 188-200, 2003 A reliable modelling of the young concrete creep behaviour is of great importance for consistent thermal crack risk estimations that shall contribute to assure a desired service lifetime and function of a structure. All-embracing creep tests aimed for thermal stress analyses are often very time consuming and thereby also costly to perform. Therefore thermal stress calculations in everyday engineering practice are often performed with standard sets of creep data involving no or very limited laboratory testing, which increases the error of the crack risk predictions and consequently also affect the design safety margins. The need for formulations that based on limited test data can make reliable predictions about the creep behaviour of hardening concrete is thus quite evident.This paper is a direct continuation of a previous study by Larson and Jonasson (2002) where a new concrete creep formulation called the Linear Logarithmic Model-LLM was formulated. Here creep prediction formulas based on the LLM formulation are established and evaluated. It is shown that general model parameters can be established whereby the long-term creep behaviour is clearly dependent on the modulus of elasticity with larger creep deformations for lower E-modulus. An average error related to creep of 15 percent is what can be expected from most thermal stress analyses that are performed with standard sets of creep data today. By use of the prediction formulas based on the proposed LLM formulation for creep compliance it is possible to reduce the error by almost two thirds ( 2/3 ) only by adding the results from a test of the modulus of elasticity at the age of 28 days. For more advanced applications, where even better accuracy is required, it is recommended that at least a creep compliance test is performed at two loading ages, of which one at the age of 28 days. Numerical Model for Prestressed Composite Concrete Flexural Members Ranier Adonis Barbieri, Francisco de Paula Sim嫺s Lopes Gastal and Americo Campos Filho Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1(2) 201-210, 2003 A finite element numerical model for the analysis of composite construction structures has been implemented using the hybrid type formulation for planar frames structures. The hybrid type finite element is regarded as a theoretically exact approach for forces and curvatures distributions. This approach allows the use of long elements, consequently improving computational efficiency and enhancing the unbonded tendon strain calculation. The computer programme considers bonded and unbonded prestressing, cyclic loading, time-effects and geometrical non-linearity. For composite construction analysis, new layers may be added to the cross-sections at any time, elements may be added to the structure during analysis, reinforcing bars may be included in the elements and bonded or unbonded tendons may be stressed during analysis. Time is parameter used for the description of loading and construction histories, even in time-independent materials problems. Such approach for composite construction allows the modelling of complex histories in a simple manner. Results are presented comparing numerical and experimental behaviours, including unbonded simply supported prestressed beams, cast-in-place continuity of hollow-core slabs and prestressed cast-in-place continuity of pre-cast beams. Numerical and experimental curves show a good agreement in all examples, demonstrating an adequate performance of the model.

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